This is the second of two guest blogs on Sir Marc Aurel Stein, the Hungarian-born, British archaeologist. You can read the first blog post here.
The author, Dr Li Changlu (Beijing International Studies University), is a visiting scholarat HAPP for 2024/25.
The first glance of Aurel Stein in Mogao Caves
On 11th February 1907, Aurel Stein left Kashi, Xinjiang, and continued his journey east in China.1
The city of Dunhuang played a strategic and logistically important role within the Silk Road network. Lying in an oasis at the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, Dunhuang was one of the first trading cities merchants encountered, arriving in China from the West. The famous Mogao Caves, in the cliffs to the south of the city, are over 1600 meters long and are divided into two areas, North and South.
The 492 numbered caves have a total of more than 45,000 square meters of murals, more than 3,000 coloured sculptures, and five Tang and Song Dynasty wooden cave eaves. These cultural relics reflect the high level of exquisite art in ancient China and the history of the development of painting and sculpture art of the relevant era. The relics also provide visual materials on the development and evolution of ancient religious beliefs, ideas, political struggles, ethnic relations, Sino-foreign exchanges, social life, folk customs, production technology, architecture, clothing, laws and regulations in China, especially in Hexi and Dunhuang areas to varying degrees. They have precious artistic, historical and archaeological value, and are the largest existing Buddhist cave group in the world, with the longest continuous construction time and the richest content.4
Aurel Stein’s first discovery in Dunhuang was during his excavation from 12th to 22nd March. In Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in central Asia and Westernmost Khotan (Volume 4), we can find the collections of Mogao Caves gathered by Stein during his first trip in Dunhuang.5 Obviously, there were more cultural relics in the caves when Stein arrived there than today. The discovery of Mogao Caves made Stein famous, but foremost after his discovery more European adventurers arrived there; and the fate of cultural treasures that had been sealed for thousands of years in the desert also dramatically changed.
While people marvel at the academic value on the research of the Mogao Caves, few people admire Stein’s ‘luck’. It seemed as if his discovery in Mogao Caves was a miracle, as he knew nothing about Chinese and had never been to China before. When many people believed that Stein was the first European to discover the Mogao Caves, they were probably too confident in Stein’s fate. Did destiny lead Stein to Dunhuang, or did someone ‘under the guide of destiny’?
Serindia: detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China carried out and described under the orders of H. M. Indian government by Sir Aurel Stein (1921), p. 795
Serindia, p. 520
The East Asian expedition of Count Béla Szécheny in Duhuang
In the late Qing period, some other Hungarian travelers and scholars played a significant role in the research of the geographical, geological, ethnological, zoological and botanical knowledge of China. A major achievement in this vein was the East Asian expedition of Count Béla Széchenyi (1837-1908). The three scholarly members of the expedition were Austrian cartographer lieutenant Gusztáv Kreitner (1847-1893), the linguist Gábor Bálint (1844-1913) who, however, was forced leave the expedition due to illness, and the geologist and geographer Lajos Lóczy (1849-1920). Lóczy played the main role in fieldwork,6 and the most important scholarly results of the expedition concerning the geomorphology and paleontology Western China are linked to his name.7
Count Béla Széchenyi’s expedition started from Trieste in December, 1877. The expense of the expedition totally came from the pocket of Count Béla Széchenyi, was fully sponsored by him. At the beginning of 1878, Count Szécheny’s expedition arrived in India and spent almost 6 months traveling before reaching Java Island. From Java the expedition continued by boat to Guandong province on the South China Sea coast to continue by road to the North West of China.
Actually, Dunhuang was the most westerly town that Count Széchenyi’s expedition reached within China. They were the first European expedition to discover the Mogao Caves and Lóczy noted it as the following:
“Near Tun-huang-hszien [Dunhuang xian] the Csing-fu-sz [Qianfosi] caves are famous. About 24 km from the town in a southern or south-easterly direction stand bare granite mountains, and at their northern foot are horizontal layers of gravel conglomerate covered by wind-blown sand with a valley cutting into them. On the vertical western wall, at a length of 2 km on three levels, are hundreds of cave openings in dense succession. Among them two giant Buddha figures are cut out from the rock, one 20, the other at least 35-40 meters high. The narrow entrances of the caves lead into spacious rectangular chambers that remind one of Elefanta [Elephanta] in Bombay and the caves of the island of Salzette [Salsette]. The walls are covered with paintings mostly showing scenes from the Buddha’s life. The figures of women are painted with taste, and around the heads of the figures are haloes like those of Christian saints. There are clay statues in the bigger caves and in front of them altars with vessels of fresh water and fragrant incense burners and next to them a big copper plate and a drum to make the pilgrims’ prayers sound louder . . .”8
These murals reflect the original image of Buddhism, when it was introduced to China thousands of years ago. At the same time, they bear witness to the glorious history of Dunhuang as an important post station on the Silk Road.9
“In front of the caves there are several Chinese temples; These are being elaborately restored by the wealthy Chinese, who also have had the clay statues of the caves repaired. More over instead of the fine old frescoes they are having new ones painted which appeal to them. At the time of our visit only two Buddhist monks were guarding the caves and performing the prescribed rituals in front of the undamaged Buddha figures. I also saw two sleeping Buddhas in the caves, over whose slumbers the most varied types of figures rejoiced and gave thanks.”10
Serindia, p. 814Serindia, p. 797Serindia, p. 804
It is worth noting that when Count Szécheny’s expedition arrived in Dunhuang (almost 30 years earlier than Stein), although the Qing government was already in danger, some Qing Dynasty officials still took responsibility for the safety of the caves. However, when Stein arrived there in 1907, the Qing government no longer had the means to care about these treasures in the desert.11 As Count Szécheny’s expedition described, when they arrived at Dunhuang, some rich Chinese were focused on restoring and repairing the precious treasures in the Caves. In contrast, when Aurel Stein arrived at Dunhuang 28 years later, just Taoist Wang Yuanlu guarded the increasingly dilapidated Cave.
“Sand blown by the west wind has covered the inside of most caves, in the past however they must have been covered even more deeply judging by the old sand layer lines. There are at least 1000 caves here and the number of figures in them must be over 10,000. Everything points to the possibility that the idols and caves of Csing-fu-sz[Qianfosi] were made according to the plans of Indian Buddhist priests or missionaries, at any rate the old figures bear no relationship to the Chinese Buddhist traditions found in the provinces of Central China. According to the priests, the caves were built during the Han dynasty, hence at the time when Buddhism was first brought to China. This agrees with the information from Chinese history that Sacsou [Shazhou] was an important place from the Han dynasty onwards. The present day colony was founded by Kien-lung [Qianlong (1736-1796)] on the right bank of the river Tan-ho [Danghe], over which a bridge leads to the ruins of Sacsou. On the fringes of the Gobi Desert out of all the towns of Kanszuh those in the surroundings of Tun-huang-hszien are the most flourishing and most populous. In the past the area was even more important, when the above mentioned [northern and southern] routes terminated here and the silk trade followed this route towards Khotan to Persia and towards Khamil [Hami], the town of the Uighurs…”12
It is undeniable that the elements of Han Culture in these Buddhist murals are the concrete embodiment of the exchange and integration of China Central Plain Culture (Zhongyuan Culture) in civilization and foreign cultures.
Count Széchenyi’s expedition could not remain longer in situ, because the foodstuff started to be short of supply, and so it went to Suzhou. After visiting the caves, they went back to Suzhou. On 26th April 1880, after the 27 months expedition in China, the Hungarian set out for home.
Although most Chinese think Aurel Stein was the first foreigner to discover the Caves, in reality, Count Szécheny’s expedition passed through Dunhuang and noted the murals and artifacts 28 years before Stein’s visit.
Ancient fort T. XIV, at ‘Jade Gate’ of Tun-Huang Limes, with gate through west wall. From Serindia, p. 685Ancient watch-tower T. XII, Tun Huang Limes, seen from north-west. From Serindia, p. 685Ancient fort T. XIV, at ‘Jade Gate’ of Tun-Huang Limes, seen from north-east. From Serindia, p. 685North-west corner of enclosure of Ancient Magazine T. XVIII, Tun-Huang Limes, with refuse heap in course of clearing. From Serindia, p. 685
How Lajos Lóczy drew Aurel Stein to Mogao Caves
After the first discovery of the Mogao Caves, Aurel Stein became well-known in Western academic circles. However, he did not attribute to himself the Mogao Caves discovering; Stein honestly acknowledged that it was with the guidance of a Hungarian geologist, paleontologist, and explorer, Lajos Lóczy, that he was able to successfully reach Dunhuang and complete his first exploration. As we can see, he paid tribute to Lóczy several times in Serindia, for example,
“I must regret that, owing to the death of Professor L. De Lóczy and the conditions arising from the war, it has not been possible to make accessible here the results of the analysis of the sand samples and other geological specimens collected by me which that eminent authority on the geology of westernmost China had undertaken and in part carried out. It was he who first directed my attention to the art remains of the ‘Thousand Buddhas’, which he had visited in 1879, and the guidance thus afforded I have ample reason to preserve in grateful memory.”13
In 1902, the International Conference of Orientalists was organised in Hamburg, Germany. Lajos Lóczy gave a speech about Count Széchenyi’s expedition in China and also mentioned the discovery of the Dunhuang Caves. Aurel Stein was also in attendance, and his attention was drawn to the mysteries of the caves.14 Spurred by Lóczy and allured by the beauty of the Mogao Caves’ picture, this young Hungarian, naturalized British, started his expedition to Dunhuang in 1907, which was funded by the Government of India (60%) and the British Museum (40%).15
As for why Stein received the trust and help from Lóczy, besides Stein’s academic ability and experience, and the same Hungarian roots between them, there is another factor not easily ignored. The Arabist Ignaz Goldziher, a friend of Aurel Stein’s uncle, Prof. Ignaz Hirschler Stein, who supported Stein’s studies and life after Stein’s father died, was a close friend of Lajos Lóczy. From the letters between Ignaz Goldziher and Lajos Lóczy we know the friendship between those two could have had some influence on the people close to them.16
Unfortunately, in the aftermath of World War One, Hungary experienced the growth of antisemitism, and in this context we need to understand the end of a long-lasting friendship between Ignaz Goldziher and Lóczy Lajos.17
Dr. Changlu Li (Beijing International Studies University, project name ‘Hungarian core cultural trade research’, project number ‘KYZX23A002’)is a visiting scholar at HAPP for 2024/2025
M. Aurel Stein, Serindia: detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China carried out and described under the orders of H. M. Indian government (volume II) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921), p.449. ↩︎
The map is from the following website, https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert. ↩︎
The map is from the following website, http://www.china.org.cn/travel/dunhuang/2016-08/11/content_39068686.htm. ↩︎
M. Aurel Stein, Serindia: detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China carried out and described under the orders of H. M. Indian government (volume II), p.578. ↩︎
Lóczy Lajos, Gróf Széchenyi Béla emlékezete (The memory of Count Béla Széchenyi) (Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1923), p.13. ↩︎
Dr. Kubassek János, Jeles Világjárók nyomdokain (In the footsteps of illustrious world travelers) (Pusztazámor: Dénes Natur Műhely Kiadó,1998), p.171. ↩︎
The English description comes from Lilla Russell-Smith, “Hungarian Explorers in Dunhuang”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic SocietyIII, Vol. 10, No. 3 (Nov., 2000), p.353. The original Hungarian description comes from Lajos Lóczy, Khínai Birodalom Természeti Viszonyainak országainak leírása p.495-496. ↩︎
Lilla Russell-Smith, “Hungarian Explorers in Dunhuang”, p.354. ↩︎
北京语言大学新闻网（Beijing Language and Culture University’s News Website），回顾敦煌百年之劫（Looking back at Dunhuang’s century-long catastrophe），https://news.blcu.edu.cn/info/1024/10230.htm(2025.06.09) 中国敦煌石窟保护研究基金会（China Dunhuang Grottoes Conservation Research Foundation), 王圆箓与敦煌藏经洞的意外收 (Wang Yuanlu and the unexpected discovery of Dunhuang Caves), https://www.dhafund.cn/cms/whhy/281.html（2025.06.09） ↩︎
Lilla Russell-Smith, “Hungarian Explorers in Dunhuang”, p.354. ↩︎
M. Aurel Stein, Serindia: detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China carried out and described under the orders of H. M. Indian government (volume II), p.XIX. ↩︎
Lilla Russell-Smith, “Hungarian Explorers in Dunhuang”, pp.344-345. ↩︎
Turán Tamás, “„A tudománynak nincs hazája, de a tudósnak van hazája”: Goldziher Ignác 1919-ben” (“Science has no homeland, but the scientist has one”: Ignác Goldziher in 1919), Regio-Minorities, Politics, Society, (2024), pp.193-222. ↩︎
Lajos Lóczy maintained his opinion on Jews in general, and expressed his incomprehension and regret that his “high esteemed friend” -Ignaz Goldziher, who misunderstood Lóczy’s speech. Kinga Dévényi, “From Algiers to Budapest : the letters of Mohamed Ben Cheneb to Ignaz Goldziher”, The Arabist Budapest Studies in Arabic, Vol.39(2018), p.12. ↩︎
